... of operating systems. First Generation Computers (1945-1955) In the mid-1940's enormous machines capable of performing numerical calculations were created. The machine consisted of vacuum tubes and plugboards, and programming was done purely in machine code. Programming languages were unheard of during the early part of the period, and each machine was specifically assembled to carry out a particular calculation. These early computers had no need for an operating system and were operated directly from the operator's console by a computer programmer, who had immediate knowledge of the computers design. By the early 1950's punched cards were introduced, allowing ...

... more than gorillas and chimps. The brains of chimps and gorillas probably didn't go through many evolutionary innovations, because they generally resemble other ape and monkey brains. This implies that the human brain changed a lot after the human/chimp evolution. With the exception of the olferactory bulb (scent), all brain structures are larger in humans than in apes. The neocortex (part of the cerebral cortex), for instance is over three times larger than in chimps, even though chimps and humans are pretty close to equal in body weight. Each side of the brain is diveded by the central sulces into independant halves. Just before the central sulcus lies ...

... be launched by means of a rocket. During the years 1943 through 1946 several studies concluded that available rockets would be unable to place a satellite into orbit. Work on rockets for missiles and upper atmosphere research was so great after World War II that by 1954 the possibility of launching a satellite was no longer in serious doubt. In October 1954 the Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY), announced to other countries that they were considering launching small satellite vehicles for space exploration. In April and again in July 1955 the USSR and the U.S. announced plans to launch for the IGY. The USSR launched SPUTNIK 1 on Oct. 4, 1 ...

... cells is called Nuclear Transfer. In this process the nucleus of one donor cell is removed and placed into a lab dish and starved of nutrients; it is then placed into a lab dish with a fertilized egg cell. Naturally, the cell that was starved will try to fuse with the healthy cell but it will need a little help. These two cells are then electrified thereby causing the two cells to fuse together combining their genetic structures. Cloning / 3 Now that we have established the scientific basis of cloning, let me tell you how cloning can directly benefit humanity. There are many health issues that can be avoided, reversed and cured by the ...

... ninety-seven and two tenths percent of the total volume of the world's water, and covers more than seventy percent of the earth's surface (Groliers). Sea water doesn't just contain hydrogen, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine; it also contains every naturally occurring element. Although seawater has a fairly constant ratio of major elements, salinity and seawater can fluctuate. Normally, the salinity is thirty-four to thirty-seven parts per thousand (ppt.), but on a particularly rainy morning, the salinity may decrease to something as low as thirty-two ppt. (Stuller 29). The mixing of freshwater and sea water forms a third type of water, known as brackish water. ...

... what exactly a black hole is, we must first take a look at the basis for the cause of a black hole. All black holes are formed from the gravitational collapse of a star, usually having a great, massive, core. A star is created when huge, gigantic, gas clouds bind together due to attractive forces and form a hot core, combined from all the energy of the two gas clouds. This energy produced is so great when it first collides, that a nuclear reaction occurs and the gases within the star start to burn continuously. The Hydrogen gas is usually the first type of gas consumed in a star and then other gas elements such as Carbon, Oxygen, and Helium are consume ...

... a Frenchman, sieur de St. Pierre, frowned on the moons of Jupiter as means of determining . He theorized that could be found by the position of the moon and select stars. At the time, Dr. Edmond Halley proved this theory wrong. After many observations, Halley concluded that the moon’s rate of revolution around the earth was accelerating overtime. John Harrison was a simple clockmaker and a self-educated person who was accredited for finding by means of a timekeeper. John built his first pendulum watch in 1713. It was constructed entirely out of wood. Harrison called his first sea clock Harrison’s No. 1 or H-1 for short. H-1 was bar-shap ...

... grass meadows. Los Angeles, California, placed on Mediterranean shrubland (MSh) terrestrial biome. Vegetation characteristic in this area is described as short shrub, drought adapted, tending to grassy woodlands chaparral. In Fargo, North Dakota, needleleaf forest and montane forest (NF/MF) makes vegetation in that area characterized as is needleleaf conifers, evergreen pine, spruce, fir, Russian larch and a deciduous needleleaf. Global Climate and Species Adaptations Nome, Alaska is located in ET/Dwd of Koppen climatic classification. Most of this area experiences permafrost condition. Temperature of the warmest month is between 0-10C. Continuous snow covers th ...

... of your body at once. Lung cancer is one of the most common type of cancer caused by smoking. Smoking can cause cancer in the stomach as well in the throat. Smoking not only attacks your health, but it can also attack your pocketbook. The costs of a single pack of cigarettes has raised substantially in recent years, from 1.75 in the late '80s too nearly over $3.00 now, that’s over $20.00 a carton. Think if you smoked two packs a day for 30 years, multiply that by the price of a pack a cigarettes (think about the fact that the price is almost certain to rise within that time), that’s a lot of money. Then you have the cleaning and air freshening bill ...

... another dead species every 6 minutes. We're trashing the planet, washing away the topsoil, paving over our farmlands, systematically deforesting our wildernesses, decimating the biota, and ultimately killing ourselves. The world is getting progressively poorer, and it's all because of populating, or more precisely, over-population. There's a finite store of resources on our pale blue dot, spaceship Earth, our small and fragile tiny planet, and we're fast apporaching it's ultimate carrying capacity. The limits to growth are finally upon us, and we're living on borrowed time. The laws of population growth are inexorable, Unless we act decisively, the final resul ...